Sleep

-sleep is a state of consciousness

-we are less aware of our surroundings 

'Conscious

'Subconscious

'Unconscious

Biological Rhythms

annual cycles: seasonal variations (bears hibernation, seasonal affective disorder)

 28 day cycles: menstrual cycle

24 hour cycle: our circadian rhythm

90 minute cycle: sleep cycles

Circadian Rhythm

-Our 24 hour biological clock

-our body changes temperature and awareness changes throughout the day.

-it is best to take a test or study during your circadian peaks

Sleep Stages 

-there are 5 identified stages of sleep

-it takes about 90-100 minutes to pass through the 5 stages 

-the brains waves will change according to the sleep stage you are in

-the first four stages are known as NREM sleep

-the fifth stage is called REM sleep

Stage 1

-kind of awake and kind of asleep

-only lasts a few minutes, and you usually only experience it ounce a night

-eyes begin to roll slightly 

-your brain produces Theta Waves((high amplitude, low frequency))

Stage 2 

-this follows Stage 1 sleep and is the "baseline" of sleep 

-this stage is part of the 90 minute cycle and occupies approximately 45-60% of sleep.

-More Theta Waves that get progressively slower.

-begin to show sleep spindles...short bursts of rapid brain waves.

Stage 3 & 4 

-slow wave sleep.

-you produce Delta waves.

-if awoken you will be very groggy

-vital for restoring body's growth hormones and good overall health. 

Insomnia

-recurring problems 

Narcolepsy 

-characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks 

-lapses directly into REM sleep (usually during times of stress or joy) 

Sleep Apnea

-a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and consequent momentary reawakening

Night Terrors

-a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified 

-occur in stage 4, not REM, and are not often remembered 

Sleep Walking 

-sleep walking is aa sleep disorder affecting an estimated 10 percent of all humans at least once in their lives.

-sleep walking most often occurs during deep non-REM sleep (stage 3 or stage 4 sleep) early in the night.

Dreams 

-a sequence of images, emotions and thoughts passing through as a sleeping persons mind

 Manifest Content:that remembered storyline of a dream

Latent Content: the underlying meaning of a dream

Why do we dream?

 Frued's wish-fulfillment Theory

-dreams are they key to understanding our inner conflicts 

-ideas and thoughts that are hidden in our unconscious 

-manifest and latent content 

 

Information-Processing Theory

-dreams act to sort out and understand the memories that you experience that day

-REM sleep does increase after stressful events 

Activation-Synthesis Theory

-during the night our brainstem releases random neural activity, dreams mat be a good way to make a sense of that activity 

Operant Conditioning

-a type of learning un which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment 

Classical v. Operant 

-they both use acquisition, discrimination, SR, generalization and extinction 

-Classical conditioning is automatic (respondent behavior). Dogs automatically salivate over meat, then bell-no thinking involved 

-operant conditioning involves behavior where one can influence their environment with behaviors which have consequences (operant behavior).

Shaping

-a procedure in Operant Conditioning which reinforces guide behavior closer and closer towards a goal 

Reinforcement

-any event that STRENGTHENS the behavior it follows 

-two types of Reinforcement

Positive Reinforcement 

*strengthens a response by presenting a stimulus after a response 

Negative Reinforcement 

*strengthens a response by reducing or removing an aversive stimulus

Primary Reinforcer

-an innately reinforcing stimulus

Conditioned (secondary) Reinforcer

-a stimulus that gains it reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through the process of storage and retrieval of information 

Three parts 

Encoding 

The processing of information into the memory system

ex. corny jokes to pull a girl

Storage

The retention of material over time

ex.

Retrieval

Getting the information out of memory storage 

Recall vs Recognition 

recal: trying to retrieve info from your memory 

ex:fill in the blank 

Recognition: identify the target from possible targets

ex: multiple choice tests 

Flash bulb memory

Where you have a clear moment of an emotionally significant moment or event 

Three types of memory 

-sensory memory

-short term memory

-long term memory

Sensory

The immediate initial recording of sensory information

It Is stored for just an instant and most of the information goes unprocessed

Short term memory

you only hold a few items briefly

if it does not stay in short term memory it goes to long term or is forgotten

(aka working memory)

three parts to that: audio, visual, integration of audio and visual 

Long term memory

permanent and lintless store house of memory

Thinking

Cognition-another term if thinking knowing and remembering 

Does the way we think really matter?

Maybe by studying think better

In order ti think about the word we form 

A mental grouping of similar objects events ideas it people we base our concepts on Proto type same mental image or best example of a category 

If a new job object is similar to our prototype we are better able to recognize it

How we solve problems?

Trial and Error

Algorithms

A methodical logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

What are the benefits and detriments of algortihms

Heuristics 

A rule of thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently a shortcut that can be prone to errors

Insight

A sudden and often all the realization of the solution to a problem no real strategy involved

Obstacles to problem solving

Confirmation bias the tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions

Match problem

Can you arrange these six matches into four equilateral triangles

Match problem

Fixation-The inability to see a problem from my perspective

Mental set is a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way especially if it has worked in the past may or may not be a good thung

Functional Fixedness

The tendency to think of things only in terms of the usual functions

Types of Heuristics (that often led to errors)

Representativeness heuristic

It will lift him for judging likelihood of things in terms of how well they match our prototype can cause us to ignore important for nation

Availability heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in our memory if it comes to mind easily and maybe a vivid is that we presume it is common

Over confidence 

The tendency to be more confident than correct to overestimate the accuracy of your beliefs and judgments

Framing is the weight and issue is posed it can have drastic effects on your decisions and judgments

Believe bias

Democrats support free-speech dictators are not Democrats conclusion dictators do not support free-speech the tendency for once pre-existing beliefs to distort logical reasoning sometimes making in valid conclusions valid or vice versa

Believe perseverance clinging to your initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discrete discredited

Artificial intelligence

Intelligence what makes us intelligent or not so intelligent

Intelligence the ability to learn from experience solve problems and use knowledge to adapt to new situations socially constructed that's can be culturally specific

This intelligence one thing or several different abilities

To find a scientist use factor analysis a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test

Charles Spearman used if a discovery his G or general intelligence

Multiple intelligences Howard Gardner disagreed with Spearmans g and instead came up with the concept of multiple intelligences

He came up with the idea by studying seventh a condition where a person has limited mental ability but is exceptional in one area

Gardners multiple intelligences visual spatial verbal linguist stick logical mathematical model he can miss that it can musical with medic interpersonal intrapersonal natural

Sternberg's three aspects of intelligence

Gardener simplified 

Analytical academic problem-solving

Creative generating novel ideas

Practical required for every day tasks were multiple solutions exist

Emotional intelligence first called social intelligence the ability to perceive express understanding regulate emotions some studies so EQ to be a greater predicted for future success than I Q

Brain size and intelligence is there a link small +.15 correlation between head size and intelligence scores relative to body size using an MRI we found +.44 correlation with brain size of an IQ score

Brain function and intelligence higher performing brains use less active than lower performing Brent use less glucose

Neurological speed is also a bit quicker

How do we access intelligence

I'll Alfred bennet and Theodore salmon set out to figure out a concept called a mental age what a person of a particular age should know

They discovered that by discovering someone's mental age they can predict future performances hope to they could use tests to help children not labeled

Terminate his IQ test a eight-year-old has a mental age of 10 but what is her IQ

A 12-year-old has the mental age of nine what is his IQ

A boy has a mental age of 10 and an IQ of 200 how ild is he

Used Bennetts research to construct the modern-day IQ test called the Stanford Bennett test

I Q equals mental age/chronological age times 100

Problems with IQ formula

It does not really work well on adults why if a 60-year-old man does as well as an average 30-year-old then his IQ would be 50 that makes no sense

Modern tests of mental abilities

Wechsler Adult intellegence Scale 

Consist of 11 subtests and cues as us into strength by using factor analysis

Aptitude versus achievement tests

Aptitude a test designed to protect a person's future performance the ability for that person to learn

Achievement a test designed to assess what a person has learned

How do we construct intelligence test test must be standardized to reliable and valid

Standardization

The test must be pretested to a representative sample of people and for my normal distribution or bell curve

Reliability the extent to which a test yields consistent results over time split have score test three test method

Validity the extent to which a test measures what is supposed to measure content validated he does it the test sample a behavior or interest

Predictive value T does the test predict future behavior

Does intelligence change over time by age 3 a child IQ can predict a docent IQ scores depends on the type of intelligence crystallized or fluid

Extremes of intelligence

Group differences in intelligence test scores the bell curve is different for white versus black math scores are different across genders and the highest scores are for Asian males why nature or  nurture

Test biased?

Tests do discriminate but some argue that their sole purpose is to discriminate we have to look at the type of discrimination

Sensation and Perception

Sensation: your window to the world

Perception: interpreting what comes in your window 

Transduction

-transforming signals into neural impulses 

-information goes from senses to the thalamus, the to the various areas in the brain

Sensory Adaptation

-decreased responsiveness to stimuli due to constant stimulation 

Cocktail-party Phenomenon

-the cocktail party effect describes the ability to focus ones listening attention on a single talker among a mixture of conversations and background noises, ignoring other conversations.

Energy vs. Chemical senses 

Energy senses: 

Chemical senses: 

Vision

-our most dominating sense

-visual capture

The longer the wave, the more red

The shorter the wavelength the more violent 

PHASE TWO

Phase four: In the brain

-goes to the Visual Cortex located in the Occipital Lobe of the Cerebral Cortex

-feature detectors 

-parallel processing

Trichromatic Theory

Three types of cones:

-Red

-blue

-green

These three types of cones can make millions of combinations of colors

-Does not explain afterimages or colorblindness well

 

Opponent Process Theory

-the sensory receptors come in pairs

'Red/gree

'Yellow/blue

'Black/white

-if the color is stimulated, the other is inhibited

 

Afterimages 

Hearing

Our auditory sense 

We hear sound waves

The height of the wave gives us the amplitude if the sound

-the frequency of the wave gives us the pitch if the sound

Transduction in the ear 

-sound waves hit the eardrum then advil then hammer then stirrup the oval window

-everything is just vibrating

-the COCHLEA is lined with mucus called basilar membrane there are hair cells

-when hair cells vibrate they turn vibrations into neural impulses which are called organ of Corti

-sent up to the thalamus up the auditory nerve

Place Theory

-different hairs vibrate in the cochlea when they different pitches

-so some hairs vibrate when they hear high and other vibrate when they hear low pitches 

 

Deafness

Conduction deafness

-something goes wrong with the sound and the vibration on the way to the cochlea

-you can replace the bones or get a hearing aid to help

Nerve (sensorineural deafness) 

-the hair cells in the cochlea get damaged

-loud noises can cause this type of deafness 

-noway to replace the hairs

-cochlea implant is possible

 ________________________________________________

Sensation

-bottom up processing

Analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brains integration of sensory information 

-top down processing 

Information processing guided by higher level mental process

As when we construct perceptions drawing on out experience and expectations 

Absolute Threshold

-the minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time 

Difference Threshold

-the minimum difference that a person can detect between two stimuli

-also known as just noticeable the 

Webers Law

-the idea that, to perceive a difference between two stimuli, they must differ by a constant percentage not a constant amount

Signal Detection Theory

-predicts how we detect a stimulus amid other stimuli

-assumes that we do not have an absolute threshold

-we detect stuff based on our experiences, motivations and fatigue level

Subliminal Stimulation

-below one's absolute threshold for conscious

Intensity

The amount of energy in a light wave determined by the height of the wave. The higher the wave the more intense the light is

Parallel Processing 

-the processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously 

color, motion, form

Rods facilitate black and white vision

Cones facilitate color vision 

Frequency 

The number of complete wave lengths that pass throu point at a given time. This determines the pitch of a sound

Short waves= high frequency 

Long waves= low frequency 

Amplitude: is how loud the sound is. The higher the crest of the wave is the louder the sound is. It is measured in decibels

Sensory Interaction: the principle that one sense may influence another

Papillae

-those bumps on our tongue are called Papillae

-papillae help grip food while your teeth are chewing. They also have another special job-they contain your taste buds

-Sweet is sensed when our sensitive taste buds come into contact with sugar , it is found on the tip of your tongue  

-Salty is sensed when our salty taste buds come in contact with salt (sodium chloride)

-Sour is sensed when our sour taste buds come in contact with an acid 

-Bitter is sensed when our bitter taste buds come in contact with our alkaline chemical and it is based on 

-Spicy is sensed when the nocioreseptors in our mouth come into contact with a chemical that irritates them 

_________________________________________________

Touch

-a receptors located in our skin

-gate control theory of pain

-the nervous system blocks or allows pain signals to pass to the brain 

Vestibular Sense

-tells us where our body is orientated in space

-our sense of balance

-located in our semicircular canals in our ears 

Kinesthetic Sense

-tells us where our body parts are

-receptors located in our muscles and joints 

_________________________________________________

Perception 

-the process of organizing and interpreting information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Visual Capture

-the tendency for vision to dominate the other senses

Gestalt Psychology 

-gestalt psychology emphasize our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

Figure Ground Relationship 

-the organization of the visual felid into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground)

Grouping

-the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into groups that we understand 

-PROXIMITY 

we group near by figures together

-SIMILARITY

we group items that are similar together

-CONTINUITY

continuos patterns 

-CONNECTEDNESS

something uniformed and linked together

Depth Perception 

-the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two dimensional

-allows us to judge distance 

 

How do we transfer twi dimensional  objects  to three-dimensional peeception?

-binoculars Cues: depth cues that depend on two eyes 

-monocu

Binocular Cues

-Retinal Disparity: a binocular cue fir seeing depth 

The closer an object comes to you the greater the disparity is between to the two images 

 

Monocular Cues

-interposition: if something is blocking our view we perceive it as closer 

-relative Size: if we know that two objects are similar in size, the one that looks smaller us farther away

-relative Clarity:we assume hazy objects are farther away

-texture gradient:the coarser it looks the closer it is 

-relative height: things higher in our field of vision they look farther away

-relative motion:things that are closer appear to move more quickly 

-liner perspective:parallel lines seem to converge wit distance 

-light snd shadow: dimmer object appear farther away because they reflect less light

Phi Phenomenon 

-an illusion of movement created when two or mire adjacent lights blink on and off in succession 

Perceptual Consistency

-perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change